Sturbuck strategic analysis

Prof. Duncan Angwin

Micro cases from

The Strategy Pathfinder

Angwin, D. N. and Cummings, S.

The French and British Armies: Stunning victories and defeats

The British Army’s numerous triumphs on the battlefield and distinctive red coat contributed to its outstanding reputation during the nineteenth century. The brilliant colour and gleaming steel exerted a strong psychological and emotional influence on its soldiers and the enemy and was key in the exercise of British power. Coats were often trimmed with gold, silver or white lace depending on rank and carried between twenty and forty buttons depending on regiment. The headgear contributed to the striking appearance of soldiers being imposing and topped with plumes. The British army was described by 19th century commentators as superior in brilliance to any army in Europe with dazzling colour, profusion of ornaments and polished accouterments designed to present a dazzling ‘coup d’oeil.’ This martial spectacle of bedecked ranks of soldiers also communicated values of solidarity of purpose, discipline, conformity, order and efficiency. Many Britons took pride in the sight of the army as a symbol of Britain’s military superiority.

The British Army’s systematic use of red coats originated with Oliver Cromwell’s New Model Army in 1645. Its popularity was probably due to the easy availability of red dyes and a simple dying process meant they were cheap to produce. However they were now firmly established as a sign of an Englishman. During the American War of Independence in 1778 the American used camouflage so that they were difficult to see, unlike the massed British lines who were highly visible at the battle of Bunker Hill for instance. Nonetheless the Redcoat persisted even though by the 1850s there was widespread adoption of rifles that allowed accurate long distance fire and in the 1880s smokeless powder was introduced. The Redcoats were still in use during Britain’s major defeat in the Boer Wars in South Africa although by now khaki (a light shade of yellow/brown) was being introduced in other fields of conflict such as India. 210 years after its introduction into active service in 1902 the redcoat was finally consigned to being of ceremonial use only, although it is worth noting that the French continued to use highly visible blue coats and red trousers up to the beginning of World War 1 where they sustained very heavy casualties.

The French had also clung to traditional ways much earlier in their history when their knights had dominated European battlefields for centuries. They were virtually invincible with heavy armor, powerful weapons, and considerable maneuverability. The massed ranks of knights were capable ripping holes in enemy lines and intimidating advances. Their military power was echoed in the economic and political power of a French elite knightly class that had developed an elaborate code of chivalry and military conduct.

In 1346, however, King Edward III of England was conducting a successful campaign through Normandy where he had met little resistance. In moving his 8,000 men northwards to link up with Flemish allies, he was suddenly confronted by a far larger French army at Crécy. Edward arranged his forces around a hilltop from which he could observe the lay of the land. With his rear protected by forest and high ground, the enemy would try a frontal attack across open fields. To repulse the assault, Edward placed his yeoman archers to the fore. The English had learnt just how effective archers’ bows could be from bitter experiences in their border conflicts with the Welsh and Scottish. The English had begun to put this learning to good use by diverting a good portion of their increased wealth garnered from subduing their Celtic neighbours toward the development of technology such as the longbow. To encourage competence in the bow, competitions had been introduced around the English counties along with edicts making archery a compulsory activity. Subsequently, Edward’s longbow archers had an effective range of 300 yards, were able to hit a human target at 100 yards, and could penetrate three inches of oak. With a direct hit, even armor would not deflect their arrows.

French lines were fronted with Genoese crossbowmen. Crossbow bolts could pierce the heaviest armor and these mercenaries could fire at a rate of two bolts a minute. However, despite the deadly nature of this weapon, the French nobility bitterly resented the ability of such “peasantry.” Indeed, in keeping with these beliefs, the French Catholic Church forbade the use of this “lowly” weapon by Christians against Christians. It therefore tended to be marginalized and underutilized in battle by the ruling classes. Behind the crossbowmen stood the armored French knights on heavy warhorses supported by footmen. However, at Crécy, the narrow road to the battlefield was heavily congested. Supply carts and necessary equipment could not get through to serve the lines ahead.

The Genoese were the first to fire, but their volley fell short. Before they could reload and advance, the English let loose barrage after barrage of arrows. The Genoese, normally protected by large wooden shields, were vulnerable as most of their shields were still in the supply carts. Hundreds were killed, defenceless against the hail of arrows. A wave of French knights then charged over the Genoese ramparts, aiming to crash through the English line and break their formation. But they too were engulfed in lethal English arrows. Although the rounded surfaces on the French armor deflected the deadly tips, flat surfaces, chain mail, and open helmets did not, and the horses, being much less well protected, fell with their riders. Once grounded, the French knights were virtually defenceless against the English footmen who slaughtered them with axes and daggers. The French made repeated assaults, but by the end of the day it was said that 16,000 Frenchmen had perished to England’s 300. The scale of the defeat was such that nearly every noble family in France was affected directly.

The new technology of the massed English archers had changed the landscape of war. However, the French responded to this blow to their pride and chivalry by investing further in armor. Chain mail was replaced by armor plate and warhorses also had armor plate covering vital areas. The plates became thicker and helmets had visors added. While their operational elements were reinforced, France’s strategic approach to warfare remained unchanged.

Almost 70 years later, in October 1415, Henry V led the English on another campaign in France. After capturing Harfleur and proceeding towards Calais, dwindling supplies, poor weather, and casualties weakened Henry’s army. Large numbers of French knights began to converge on Henry’s position, detecting the weakening condition of their foe. At Agincourt the French army was four times the size of the English force and now blocked their path. Henry was forced to fight.

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